Excerpt from History of Philosophy, Vol. 2: From Thales to the Present Time
Unity, servitude, freedom - these are the three stages through which the philosophy of the Christian era has passed, in its relation to ecclesiastical theology. The stage of freedom corresponds with the general character of the modem era, which seeks to restore, in place of medieval antagonisms, harmonious unity (cf. above, Vol. I., §§ 5 and 72). Freedom of thought in respect of form and substance has been secured gradually by modern philosophy. The first movement in this direction consisted in a mere exchange of authorities, or in the reproduction of other ancient systems than that of Aristotle, without such modification and such adaptation to new and changed conditions, as the scholastics had effected in the system of Aristotle. Then followed the era cf independent investigation in the realm of nature, and finally, also, in the realm of mind. There was a transitional period marked by the endeavor of philosophy to become independent. The second epoch, the epoch of Empiricism and Dogmatism, was characterized by methodical investigations and comprehensive systems, which were based on the confident belief that the knowledge of natural and spiritual reality was independently attainable by means of experience or thought alone. Skepticism prepared the way for the third stadium in the history of modern philosophy, which was founded by Criticism. According to the critical philosophy, the investigation of the cognitive faculty of man is the necessary basis for all strictly scientific philosophizing, and the result arrived at by it is, that thought is incompetent to the cognition of the real world in its true nature, and that it must be restricted to the world of phenomena, beyond which the only guide is man's moral consciousness.
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